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There is a need for consistency in defining and measuring outdoor food marketing to enable comparison across time and place. This review highlights the extent of unhealthy outdoor food marketing globally and the powerful methods used within this marketing. There was limited evidence on the relationship between exposure to outdoor food marketing and eating behaviour or health outcomes. The most frequent persuasive creative strategies were premium offers and use of characters. The evidence on differences in exposure by SES is heterogenous, which makes it difficult to draw conclusions, however the research suggests that ethnic minority groups have a higher likelihood of exposure to food marketing outdoors. Almost a quarter of advertisements across all studies were for food (mean of 22.1%) and the majority of advertised foods were unhealthy (mean of 63%). Criteria used to define outdoor food marketing and methodologies adopted were highly variable across studies.

All measured the extent of exposure to outdoor food marketing, twelve also assessed power and three measured impact on behavioural or health outcomes. The majority of studies (n = 39) were conducted in high-income countries.

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Relevant full texts were independently checked by two researchers against eligibility criteria.ДЇifty-three studies were conducted across twenty-one countries. Titles and abstracts were screened by one researcher. persuasive creative strategies within marketing) and impact of outdoor food marketing on behaviour and health and (iv) identifies knowledge gaps and directions for future research.ДЄ systematic search was conducted of Medline (Ovid), Scopus, Science Direct, Proquest, PsycINFO, CINAHL, PubMed, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and a number of grey literature sources. This review (i) identifies common criteria used to define outdoor food marketing, (ii) summarises research methodologies used, (iii) identifies available evidence on the exposure, power (i.e. It is less clear whether this is also the case for outdoor food marketing. There is convincing evidence that unhealthy food marketing is extensive on television and in digital media, uses powerful persuasive techniques, and impacts dietary choices and consumption, particularly in children. Overall, Calvert concludes, children live and grow up in a highly sophisticated marketing environment that influences their preferences and behaviors. Regulators exert more control over content on scarce television airwaves that belong to the public than over content on the more open online spaces. Calvert explains that government regulations implemented by the Federal Communications Commission and the Federal Trade Commission provide some protection for children from advertising and marketing practices. The new stealth techniques can also undermine the consumer defenses even of older children and adolescents. All these marketing strategies, says Calvert, make children younger than eight especially vulnerable because they lack the cognitive skills to understand the persuasive intent of television and online advertisements. Newer marketing approaches have led to online advertising and to so-called stealth marketing techniques, such as embedding products in the program content in films, online, and in video games. Calvert explains that paid advertising to children primarily involves television spots that feature toys and food products, most of which are high in fat and sugar and low in nutritional value. Second, as the enormous increase in the number of available television channels has led to smaller audiences for each channel, digital interactive technologies have simultaneously opened new routes to narrow cast to children, thereby creating a growing media space just for children and children's products.

First, both the discretionary income of children and their power to influence parent purchases have increased over time. Sandra Calvert addresses product marketing to children and shows that although marketers have targeted children for decades, two recent trends have increased their interest in child consumers. economy by promoting the sale of goods and services to consumers, both adults and children. Marketing and advertising support the U.S.